Witch folklore: myths, legends and superstition in Europe, USA and beyond

Early Laws and Persecution

Even in these early periods, legal codes addressed witchcraft. Babylon's Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BC) outlined penalties for sorcery, one of the earliest documented attempts to control magical practices through law. Roman society also condemned sorcery, particularly when it involved harm or threats to the state. As Christianity began to spread, these attitudes evolved, setting the stage for later conflicts between religion and magical practices.

The Devil and the weak

In the belief systems of the early-mid centuries, the Devil wasn't imagined but considered a real and active force, often appearing as a beast, serpent, or a hybrid of human and animal.

His greatest feat was transmitting his spirit into people, animals and even objects to bring destruction. The Devil was believed to seek out the weak because they were seen as more susceptible to his influence.

Christian influence and European witch beliefs

With the rise of Christianity, witchcraft became reframed as a dangerous practice and witches were increasingly seen as agents of evil who had made pacts with the Devil to gain supernatural powers.

In 1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued a papal bull that condemned witchcraft as a form of heresy (a direct challenge to Christian teachings) and called for the persecution of witches.

This marked a significant - and tragic - turning point. The call formalized the connection between witchcraft and the Devil, leading to increased efforts to root out witchcraft across Europe.

The 1487 publication of Malleus Maleficarum (Latin for "Hammer of Witches") by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger was one of the earliest and most influential guides for identifying, prosecuting and punishing witches.

And very soon, the hunting of witches would become a widespread frenzy, driven by paranoia and hysteria...

European witch hunts

The Early Modern period was characterized by widespread witch hunts, particularly in England, Scotland, France and Germany.

Thousands of individuals accused of witchcraft, tortured and executed. The infamous Trier witch trials in Germany and the Pendle witch trials in England are a demonstration of how witchcraft accusations often stemmed from societal fears, personal grievances, or community tensions.

More than three-quarters of those burned as witches in Europe were women - often described as old, frail, or insane.

The witchy animal trials

In what seems like the ultimate madness today, between the 15th and 16th centuries, over 100 animal trials were recorded in Europe. Yes literally, real animals were put through human-like trials.

From livestock to vermin, animals were accused of crimes ranging from murder to witchcraft, with trials following formal legal procedures.

Notable cases include a rooster burned at the stake in Basel for laying an egg and rats summoned to court in France for threatening crops.

These bizarre animal trial stories highlight the extent of superstition and the influence of folklore on perceptions of justice and evil.

Role of the Church, secular courts & King James in the persecution of witches

Religious and secular authorities worked together to root out and prosecute witches, driven by a mix of fear, superstition and the desire to protect the established religious order.

King James I of England also played a crucial role in witch persecution.

His obsession with witchcraft began with a personal encounter. During his courtship of Anne of Denmark, severe storms wrecked the fleets sent to bring her to Scotland.

James interpreted these events as the work of witches acting under the influence of the Devil and solidified his conviction that witches could manipulate natural elements like storms as tools of destruction.

James's authority helped to lend legitimacy to the fear of witches and his writings laid a foundation for the widespread hunts that followed.

His book, Daemonologie (1597), like the "Hammer of Witches" that came before, provided detailed guidance on identifying witches and justified their persecution, influencing witch trials in England and its American colonies - including of course, Salem and New England.

The Salem witch trials of colonial America

The Salem witch trials of 1692 were the most infamous witch persecutions in colonial America. The use of "spectral evidence," or testimony that a person's spirit had been seen committing witchcraft, fueled paranoia. Nineteen people were executed, and the trials marked a turning point as public sentiment began to shift against such extreme measures. Unlike Europe, where witches were often burned, in America, hanging was the common form of execution.

In the context of folklore, witch stories from ancient civilizations like Egypt and Greece are classified as myths - cultural narratives that deliver lessons through symbolic characters.

These myths are designed to illustrate moral lessons or showcase divine influence. They served as allegorical tales rather than reflections of real historical events.

In contrast, the stories that emerged during the Middle Ages are rooted in legends and superstitions, which were based on very real events and fears.

People of this era witnessed (often first-hand) the persecution of those accused of witchcraft and the anxiety surrounding these trials led to the creation of stories that, while often distorted, were believed to have happened.

These tales transformed actual experiences into legend, blurring the line between reality and folklore.

At this time, witches were being depicted as dangerous figures capable of transforming into animals or using animal "familiars" -creatures like black cats, rats and toads believed to be physical manifestations of demonic helpers.

Woodcut illustrations and literature portrayed witches gathering in secret Sabbats, brewing potions and flying on broomsticks, creating iconic images that would last for centuries.

Superstitions about witches became more widespread as fears intensified. Fueled by influential figures and the Church, many believed that witches could control the weather, destroy crops, harm livestock and cause illness.

As a response, communities turned to protective rituals and charms - often religious symbols, herbs, or items like mountain ash beads - in an effort to protect themselves against the supposedly dark, powerful forces that they could not see.

While European witchcraft dominates much of historical discussion, stories from witch folklore have deep roots in cultures across the world. 

• Africa: In many African societies, witches are believed to wield dark powers. Shamans and spiritual healers, while often lauded for their ability to mediate between the spiritual and physical worlds, were sometimes accused of using their powers for harm, creating a fine line between healer and witch.



• Asia: Chinese and Japanese traditions often portrayed witches as mystical figures tied to both healing and destruction. In Chinese folklore, witches were believed to summon spirits or curses, while Japanese stories frequently feature onmyoji - practitioners of occultism who blended divination with supernatural control.

Common witch themes across cultures

Despite geographical differences, certain themes recur in witch folklore worldwide:

• Healers and midwives: Witches were often feared and respected for their knowledge of herbal medicine and midwifery.
• Weather control and curses: Stories of witches causing storms, droughts, or other natural disasters appear across cultures.
• Animal familiars: The association of witches with animals, such as cats, toads, or serpents, is a universal trope. These creatures were often believed to act as spiritual intermediaries or extensions of a witch’s power.
  

Romanticizing witches

In the 19th century, following the age of enlightenment (where people finally realised that perhaps what they were doing wasn't the right thing after all), witch folklore began to shift away from fear and persecution toward fascination and mysticism.

The Brothers Grimm collected fairy tales that featured witches as complex figures (and these would of course later go on to become familiar characters in many Disney movies).

This period saw witches being portrayed as symbolic characters rather than purely evil beings. The Victorian era, with its interest in the occult and spiritualism, further romanticized witches, showing them as mysterious figures connected to forbidden knowledge.

Witches in modern pop culture

In the 20th and 21st centuries, witches became central figures in popular culture, appearing in books, films and traditions like Halloween.

Famous stories like The Wizard of Oz and Harry Potter have portrayed witches as magical and often misunderstood beings. While other representations, like the movie Hocus Pocus, leaned into more exaggerated depictions of witches as caricatures.

Modern reinterpretations, like the Wicca movement, have tried to reclaim witchcraft as a nature-based and inherently good, spiritual practice.

Witches have become symbols of empowerment, independence and resistance, blending old myths with new meanings and challenging their historical portrayal as dangerous outcasts.